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Geology 
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Co-operative Education Program
Course Descriptions

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AWARDS AND FINANCIAL AID 

GENERAL INFORMATION 

GENERAL INDEX 

GLOSSARY 
 

 4.9 Geology

Professors 
Smith, Terence E.; B.Sc., Ph.D. (Wales)—1969. 

Hudec, Peter P.; B.Sc. (Western Ontario), M.S., Ph.D. (Rensselaer Polytech. Inst.)—1970. 

Symons, David T.A.; B.A.Sc. (Toronto), A.M. (Harvard), Ph.D. (Toronto), P. Eng.—1970. 

Turek, Andrew; B.Sc. (Edinburgh), M.Sc. (Alberta), Ph.D. (Australian National U.), P. Eng.—1971. 

Simpson, Frank; B.Sc. (Edinburgh), Dr. Nat. Sc. (Jagiellonian U., Krakow), P. Eng.—1974. 

Blackburn, William H.; B.Sc. (St. Francis Xavier), Ph.D. (Massachusetts Inst. Technology)—1989. 

Fryer, Brian J.; B.Sc. (McMaster), Ph.D. (Massachusetts Inst. Technology)—1993. 

Associate Professors 
Rodrigues, Cyril G. I.; B.Sc. (British Columbia), M.Sc., Ph.D. (Carleton)—1979. 

Samson, Iain M.; B.Sc., Ph.D. (Strathclyde)—1986. 

Al-Aasm, Ihsan S.; B.Sc., M.Sc. (Baghdad), Ph.D. (Ottawa)—1989. 

4.9.1 PROGRAMS OF STUDY 
Programs leading to the Bachelor of Science degree in Geology and Environmental Geology are offered. All programs are subject to the general University and College of Engineering and Science regulations as outlined in the relevant sections of this calendar. 

Course Numbering: The first digit of the three-digit course number indicates the year of undergraduate studies in which the course is normally taken. Field Camp I, 61-280 (a 1.5 credit hour course) and Field Camp II, 61-380 (a 1.5 credit hour course) follow the Winter term. 

Note: Geology and Environmental Geology students are strongly urged to consult with an Earth Sciences advisor at the start of each term. 

Note: Students wishing to take additional Biological Sciences courses later in their program must take both 55-140 and 55-141. 

Environmental Geology Major 
Total courses: forty. 

Major requirements: sixteen courses, including 61-140, 61-141, 61-220, 61-221, 61-224, 61-231, 61-232, 61-242, 61-280 (a 1.5 credit hour course), 61-380 (a 1.5 credit hour course), 61-323, 61-324, 61-424, 61-430, 61-436, 61-437, and 61-440. 

Other requirements: 
(a) 42-100, 42-444, 55-140, 55-141, 59-140, 59-141, 60-140, 62-140; 
(b) two of: 62-120, 62-141, and 65-253; 
(c) eight of 55-237, 55-210, 55-444, 55-445, 59-230, 59-240, 59-250, 59-321, 60-141, 64-140, 64-141, and a fourth Mathematics course; 
(d) 34-227, and three other courses from Arts, Languages or Social Science; 
(e) two additional courses from any area of study. 

RECOMMENDED COURSE SEQUENCE 
Level 1: ten courses, including 55-140, 55-141, 59-140, 59-141, 60-140, 61-140, 61-141, 62-140, and 65-253. 

Level 2: ten courses, including 61-220, 61-221, 61-224, 61-231, 61-232, 61-242, and 61-280 (a 1.5 credit hour course). 

Level 3: ten courses, including 61-380 (a 1.5 credit hour course). 

Level 4: ten courses 

Environmental Geology Honours 
In order to earn an Honours B.Sc. in Environmental Geology, students must include the course 61-499 (thesis) in lieu of two of the 300 or 400 level Geology courses stipulated under the "major requirements" as outlined for the Environmental Geology program described above. It should be noted that only students who have maintained a major G.P.A. of 8.0 and a cumulative G.P.A of 5.0 will be permitted to enrol in 61-499. 

Geology Major 
Total courses: forty. 

Major requirements: twenty courses, including 61-140, 61-141, 61-220, 61-221, 61-230, 61-231, 61-232, 61-280 (a 1.5 credit hour course), 61-320, 61-321, 61-323, 61-324, 61-327, 61-380 (a 1.5 
credit hour course), 61-420, 61-424, and 61-429, plus four additional Geology courses. 

Other requirements: 
(a) 42-100, 42-444, 59-140, 59-141, 62-140; 
(b) two of 62-120, 62-141, and 65-253; 
(c) six of 55-140, 55-141, 59-230, 59-240, 59-250, 59-321, 60-140, 60-141, 64-140, 64-141, and a fourth Mathematics course; 
(d) four courses from Arts, Langauges or Social Science; 
(e) three courses from any area of study. 

RECOMMENDED COURSE SEQUENCE 
Level 1: ten courses, including 59-140, 59-141, 61-140, 61-141, 62-140, 64-140, 64-141. 

Level 2: ten courses, including 61-220, 61-221, 61-230, 61-231, 61-232, and 61-280 (a 1.5 credit hour course). 

Level 3: ten courses, including 61-380 (a 1.5 credit hour course) and five other Geology courses. 

Level 4: ten courses, including seven Geology courses. 

Geology Honours 
In order to earn an Honours B.Sc. in Geology, students must include the course 61-499 (thesis) in lieu of two of the "additional" geology courses stipulated under the "major requirements" for the Geology major program described above. It should be noted that only students who have maintained a major G.P.A. of 8.0 and a cumulative G.P.A of 5.0 will be permitted to enrol in 61-499. 

Combined Honours Programs 
Total courses: forty. 

Major requirements—Geology: fourteen courses, consisting of 61-140, 61-141, 61-220, 61-221, 61-231, 61-232, 61-242, and 61-499; plus five other courses at the 200 level or above. 

Major requirements—Other Subject: fourteen courses as prescribed by that area of study. 

Other requirements: 
(a) 59-140, 59-141, 60-140, and 62-140; 
(b) four science courses from a discipline other than geology or that of the second major subject area; 
(c) four courses from any area of study other than science or the discipline represented by the second major subject area. 

Minor in Geology 
A minor in Geology consists of 61-140, 61-141, 61-220, 61-231, 61-232, and one other Geology course at the 200 level or above. Students are reminded to select courses that may be taken for credit 
towards the B.Sc. degree. 

4.9.2 CO-OPERATIVE EDUCATION PROGRAM. 
The Co-operative Education Program is available for students in both the Honours Geology and the Honours Environmental Geology degree programs. The Co-op program aims to provide students with exposure to practical aspects of the Earth Sciences during their undergraduate years. The program alternates study terms and three paid work terms, beginning at the end of the second year of study. The experience gained while participating in these structured and supervised work 
placements is viewed as an integral component of the student's education. More detailed information about the program can be obtained in the Co-operative Education Office in Dillon Hall. 

APPLICATION PROCEDURE 
Students seeking admission to the Co-operative Education Program must be admitted to the College of Engineering and Science and enrolled as full-time students in Geology. By March 31 of their first 
year of study, students must apply directly to the Co-operative Education Office. Interviews will be held during the Fall term of the second year of study, and preliminary admission to the Co-op 
program will be based on the student's academic performance during the first year of study. Final acceptance will be made by mid-March in the Winter term of the second year of study, and based upon academic performance up to that date. A series of interviews with prospective employers will take place at this time. Normally, acceptance to the Co-op program requires a minimum cumulative average of 5.0 and a major average of at least 8.0. 

PLACEMENT 
Co-op students will apply for work placement positions advertised by the Administrator of the Co-operative Education Program. These job postings will include relevant information regarding responsibilities, location, wages, etc. Students will apply to the employers of their choice. 

Employers will be provided with a complete listing of Co-op students interested in their employment opportunities. Letters of application, resumes, and academic transcripts will be forwarded to the 
employers, who will select the students they wish to interview.  Placement is not guaranteed, but every reasonable effort will be made to ensure that appropriate employment is made available. 

SEQUENCE OF WORK AND STUDY TERMS 
FIRST YEAR 
Fall Term: Study term 
Winter Term: Study term 

SECOND YEAR 
Fall Term: Study term 
Winter Term: Study term 
Summer Term: Work term 

THIRD YEAR 
Fall Term: Study term 
Winter Term: Study term 
Summer Term: Work term 

FOURTH YEAR 
Fall Term: Study term 
Winter Term: Study term 
Summer Term: Work term 

EVALUATION OF STUDENT PERFORMANCE 
Upon the recommendation of the employer and, where deemed appropriate, in consultation with Geology, the Administrator of the Co-operative Education Program will evaluate the student's 
performance at the conclusion of each Work Term. A student's performance in a Work Term will be evaluated as either “Satisfactory or “Unsatisfactory”. 

A student who obtains an evaluation of “Unsatisfactory”, or who does not report for interviews, or who fails to report to an employer after accepting work, or who is dismissed for cause, or leaves an 
employer without permission, may be required by the Academic Standing Committee to withdraw from the Co-operative Education Program. 

A student who obtains an evaluation of “Unsatisfactory” in any two Work Terms will be required to withdraw from the Co-operative Education Program. 

A student who fails to maintain a cumulative average of 5.0 and a minimum major average of 8.0 will be required to withdraw from the Co-operative Education Program. 

4.9.3 COURSE DESCRIPTIONS 
All courses listed will not necessarily be offered each year. 

61-110. The Restless Earth—an Introduction 
Rocks and minerals and the processes of formation of igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic rocks. Volcanism, earthquakes, and the Earth's interior. Continents and ocean basins, plate tectonics, and 
continental drift. This course is designed for non-science majors. (May not be taken for credit toward a B.Sc. degree.) (Antirequisite: 61-140.) (2 lecture hours a week.) 

61-111. Formation of the Earth 
A summary of the major rock types and plate tectonics: surface processes, including those of the marine, transitional and continental environments; geologic time; geologic dating techniques, the fossil record, and evolution; groundwater, mineral, and energy resources. (May not be taken for credit toward a B.Sc. degree.) (Antirequisite: 61-141.) (2 lecture hours a week.) 

61-112. Global Change: Earth in Peril? 
Satellite geophysics and geologic data concerning long-term changes to the Earth's atmosphere, oceans, and surface environment. Issues include global warming, greenhouse effect, ozone layer, deforestation, desertification, energy choices, and water and mineral supply. This course is designed for non-Science majors. (May be taken for credit by B.Sc. students, but does not count as a Geology course or other Science option towards the fulfillment of the requirements of the B.Sc. degree.) (2 lecture hours a week.) 

61-140. Earth Systems I: The Solid Earth 
Introduction to Earth System Science. The Earth's component systems and their interrelationships. Origin and nature of the solar system. Earthquakes, seismology and the Earth's interior. Plate tectonics. Minerals. Magmatism and igneous rocks. Geologic time, stratigraphy and sedimentary rocks. Crustal evolution, metamorphic rocks and deformation. Hydrothermal systems. Mineral and energy resources. This course is designed for science majors. (2 lecture, 2 laboratory hours a week.) 

61-141. Earth Systems II: The Earth's Surface 
The Earth's surficial systems: surface processes, the hydrosphere and biosphere. Oceans. Streams. Groundwater. Glaciers. Deserts. Weathering and related phenomena. Sediments, fossils, time and 
paleoenvironmental analysis. Evolution of the biosphere. This course is designed for science and engineering majors. (2 lecture, 2 laboratory hours a week.) 

61-210. Introduction to Oceanography 
Geological, biological, physical, and chemical aspects of the oceans; exploration techniques, instruments, and vessels; origin of the oceans; ocean circulation; ocean and climate; waves and tides; 
marine resources. This course is designed for non-Science majors. (May not be taken for credit towards a B.Sc. degree in Geology or Environmental Geology.) (2 lecture hours a week.) 

61-213. Geology and the Environment 
Effect of geologic factors on the environment: pollution of groundwater, ground subsidence, nuclear waste disposal, sub surface disposal of liquid wastes, earthquake prediction and control. This course is specifically designed for the non-scientist. (May not be taken for credit towards a B.Sc. degree in Geology or Environmental Geology.) (2 lecture hours a week or equivalent.) 

61-214. Geology and International Development 
Aid, international development, and Earth processes; integration of water-resource management, soil conservation, and agroforestry; geological hazards in a tropical setting; small-scale mining and 
conservation of mineral resources; engineering an improved quality of life in developing nations. (May not be taken for credit towards a B.Sc. degree in Geology or Environmental Geology.) (2 lecture hours a week or equivalent.) 

61-220. Introduction to Mineralogy 
An introduction to the natural inorganic materials of the Earth: minerals, rocks, water and gases. Topics include the principles of symmetry and crystallography; inorganic chemistry of natural materials and crystal chemistry; the physical chemistry of natural processes and the stability of minerals and mineral assemblages; and the processes of crystallization. (Prerequisites: 59-140, 59-141.) (3 lecture, 3 laboratory hours a week.) 

61-221.  Applied Mineralogy 
Mineralogical applications to the interpretation of geologic problems of a petrologic, economic and environmental nature. Broad and important problems are presented using actual examples and data, case histories and alternative interpretations. The emphasis is on the application of mineralogy and inorganic processes for the interpretation of geologic phenomena. A weekly one-hour tutorial will emphasize numerical methods and problem solving. The laboratory will include more advanced methods of mineral identification including optical and x-ray techniques. (Prerequisite: 61-220.) (2 lecture, 1 tutorial, 3 laboratory hours a week.) 

61-224. Aqueous and Environmental Geochemistry 
Water chemistry—chemical reactions and equilibria, oxidation and reduction, adsorption, ion exchange. Characteristics of natural waters: rivers and lakes, subsurface waters, sea water. Water purity and water contaminants. Chemical weathering. Organic geochemistry, eochemical cycles. Geochemical aspects of global change. (Prerequisites: 59-140, 59-141.) (3 lecture hours a week, including tutorials.) 

61-230. Plate Tectonics and the Earth's Interior 
Plate tectonic processes and the major features of crustal evolution; analysis of the Earth's interior using seismologic and other geophysical evidence; introductory tectonic and geophysical problems. (2 lecture, 2 laboratory hours a week.) 

61-231. Crustal Processes and Products 
Origin and differentiation of the Earth. Formation, character and metamorphism of oceanic crust. Subduction of oceanic crust: processes, products and consequences. Formation and evolution of 
continental crust: structure of the continents, igneous processes and products, and metamorphism. (Prerequisite: 61-140, 61-221, or consent of instructor) (3 lecture, 3 laboratory hours a week.) 

61-232. Modern and Ancient Sedimentary Environments 
An integrated approach to paleontology and sedimentology; introduction to sedimentary deposits, sedimentary environments and associated invertebrate organisms; depositional systems and 
peleonenvironmental analysis. (Prerequisite: 61-141) (2 lecture, 3 laboratory hours a week.) 

61-242. Environmental Geology 
Discussion of Earth resources: water, soil, minerals, energy, and their environmental impact. Causes and effects of global climatic changes—past, present, and future. Hydrogeology; surface and 
groundwater contamination, landfill siting and monitoring. Geologic hazards; earthquakes and volcanoes; landslides and subsidence; coastal and river erosion. Glacial forms and air photo interpretation. Waste management in geology. (Prerequisite: 61-141.) (2 lecture, 2 tutorial hours a week.) 

61-246. Environmental Decision Analysis 
Earth systems, including climatic extremes, the industrialized ecosystem; decisions under uncertainty in mineral-resource exploration and development; rational approach to decision making, alternatives 
to decision analysis; environmental impact assessment and risk management, expert systems approach to environmental problem solving, applications in less developed countries. (May not be taken for credit towards a B.Sc. degree in Geology or Environmental Geology.) (3 lecture hours a week.) 

61-247. Environmental Auditing in Mineral Resource Development 
Cyclical flow of energy and matter in nature, human interaction with environmental processes, elements of policy analysis; environmental management systems and environmental impact assessment; environmental audit processes, steps in design and delivery; mineral resource development and the audit protocols; from audit to action plan, auditing the audit. (May not be taken for credit towards a B.Sc. degree in Geology or Environmental Geology.) (3 lecture hours a week.) 

61-280. Field Camp I 
Introduction to field relationships and mapping methods. Interpretation of geologic maps. Required field trips. (A 1.5 credit hour course) (Prerequisite: 61-232). 

61-298. Co-op Work Term I 

61-320. Igneous Petrology 
The origin and evolution of igneous rocks. Melting and crystallization, magmatic differentiation, contamination, mixing of magmas. Mineralogy, petrography, geochemistry and tectonic environments of representative rock suites. (Prerequisite: 61-221, 61-231.) (3 lecture, 3 laboratory hours a week.) 

61-321. Metamorphic Petrology 
The distribution and origin of metamorphic rocks in the light of physical, chemical and tectonic constraints. Mineralogy, petrography, and textural evolution of representative rock suites. (Prerequisites: 61-221, 61-231.) (3 lecture, 3 laboratory hours a week.) 

61-323. Stratigraphy 
The principles of lithostratigraphy and biostratigraphy; surface and subsurface stratigraphic methods; concepts of facies; identification and interpretation of sedimentary sequences; stratigraphic maps, 
including numerical techniques; applications in resource exploration. (Prerequisite: 61-232.) (3 lecture, 3 laboratory hours a week.) 

61-324. Sedimentary Petrology 
A review of the principal depositional environments of clastic and carbonate rocks; discussion of sediment transport processes and the generation of sedimentary structures; textural and mineralogical 
properties of sediment and sedimentary rocks, including comparison of ancient and modern depositional environments. Economic aspects of sedimentary rocks. Microscopic and laboratory examination of selected sedimentary rock types will be complemented by field work in the local area. (Prerequisites: 61-221 and 61-232.) (2 lecture, 3 laboratory hours a week; field trips.) 

61-327. Structural Geology 
Rock deformation; primary and secondary structures; analysis and classification of folds and faults; interpretation of geologic maps; solution of structural problems. (Prerequisite: 61-231.) (3 lecture, 
3 laboratory hours a week.) 

61-380. Field Camp II 
Geological mapping methods. An additional fee is charged to defray the costs of accommodation. (Prerequisites: 61-231 and 61-280.) (2 weeks; immediately following the Winter term examination period.) (a 1.5 credit hour course.) 

61-398. Co-op Work Term II 

61-420. Mineral Deposit Geology 
Geology and genesis of metallic and industrial mineral deposits. Introduction to ore-forming processes and mineral exploration. (Prerequisite: 61-221, 61-231.) (2 lecture, 3 laboratory hours a 
week.) 

61-424. Applied Geochemistry 
Geochemical environments, dispersion, mobility, reactions. Geochemical exploration. Environmental geochemistry. Analytical methods in geochemistry. Determination of major and trace 
elements in rocks. (Prerequisite: 59-140 and 59-141 or consent of instructor.) (2 lecture, 3 laboratory hours a week.) 

61-429. Basin Analysis 
Classification of sedimentary basins, pressure-temperature variation, compaction and porosity-permeability distribution, groundwater regime and hydrogeologic environment, fluid-rock interaction, diagenetic reactions, organic matter, mineralization, and basin history. (Prerequisite: 61-232 or consent of instructor.) (3 lecture/seminar hours a week.) 

61-430. Environmental and Engineering Geophysics 
An introduction to the use of seismic, electrical, electromagnetic and other geophysical methods used in near-surface environmental and engineering assessment studies. (2 lecture, 3 laboratory hours a 
week.) 

61-436. Hydrogeology 
Introduction to hydrogeology covering: hydrogeologic properties of porous media, flow nets, groundwater resource evaluation, groundwater chemistry, geology of groundwater occurrence, 
groundwater and the hydrologic cycle, and an introduction to groundwater contamination. (Prerequisite: 61-141 or consent of instructor.) (2 lecture, 3 laboratory hours a week.) 

61-437. Engineering Geology 
Valuation of economic deposits. Engineering properties of rocks. Weathering and durability of rocks used in construction. Elements of soil mechanics. Glacial soils and their geotechnical properties. 
Engineering aspects of geotechnical hazards; slope stability and land subsidence; shoreline engineering; earthquake engineering. Subsurface investigation, site selection. Engineering geology case histories.(Prerequisite: 61-141 or consent of instructor.) (3 lecture, 3 laboratory hours a week.) 

61-440. Mineral Resources and Mineral Hazards 
Mineral, hydrocarbon, and water resources, their origins and exploitation. Weathering and geochemical cycles. Minerals reactions in mining, industrial, and agricultural environments. Environmental impact of resource exploitation. Environmental geochemistry and health. 
(Prerequisite: 61-221 or consent of instructor.) (3 lecture hours week.) 

61-470. Special Topics in Geology 
Selected topics of current interest. (Prerequisite: consent of instructor and a program advisor.) (3 lecture hours a week.) 

61-480. International Field Camp 
This course is offered under the auspices of the NAFTA Student Mobility Program and will involve lectures and geological field work in Mexico (3 weeks), Ohio (2 weeks), Arizona (2 weeks), and 
Canada (3 weeks). Emphasis is placed on the geological heritage shared by the three countries. This course will acquaint the student with modern methods of structural, stratigraphic, petrologic, and/or 
geophysical measurements and interpretations. Following the field work in Mexico and the U.S.A., students will undertake an independent mapping project during the Canadian component of the 
course. (A 6.0 credit hour course) (Prerequisites: 61-320, 61-321, 61-323, 61-324, and 61-327.) (Admission by permission of a program advisor in Geology.) 

61-498. Co-op Work Term III 

61-499. Thesis 
Each student will be required to carry out a selected research project and write a report under the supervision of a staff member. The student must register in two terms; the grade will be assigned at the end of the second term. (A 6.00 credit hour course.) (Restricted to only Level 4 Honours Geology and Environmental Geology students.)