The nature of intelligence has long been regarded as an elusive construct.  Researchers and scientists have sought for decades to define intelligence according to a commonly held set of assumptions.  In fact, two major symposiums comprised of intelligence experts, held seventy years apart (Terman, 1921; Neisser et al., 1996), failed to reach a unified definition of intelligence and how it should be measured.  However, three intelligence paradigms are consistently acknowledged throughout intelligence literature: psychometric, Piagetian, and cognitive (Gardner, 1985; Neisser, 1979; Seigler & Richardson, 1982; Sternberg, 1985). 

Nonetheless, contemporary intelligent theorists (Gardner, 1984; Sternberg, 1985) have acknowledged that traditional definitions of intelligence omit considerations of practical, social, and personal abilities.  Accordingly, several have advanced their own theories of broad intelligences. Most recently, Salovey & Mayer (1990), building on Thorndike’s (1937) social intelligence theory and Gardner’s (1984) personal intelligences, have argued that these abilities, which they call Emotional Intelligence (EI) may be as important, if not more so, than traditional psychometric and cognitive aspects of intelligence. EI is comprised of self-awareness, management of emotions and relationships, self-motivation, and empathy.  The development of these skills ultimately leads to the accurate appraisal and expression of emotions, the effective regulation of emotions, and the ability to control emotions.

            Because EI is a relatively new theory, research into the factors that contribute to its development is sparse.  However, throughout the past two decades, researchers have determined that specific factors do indeed contribute to the development of prosocial behaviour in children (Ascione, 1996; Hyde, Kurdek, & Larson, 1983;).  One area that has warranted further research is the relationship between children and animals. Researchers have concluded that children who bond with their pets, especially dogs, demonstrate increased empathy, prosocial behaviour, sense of responsibility, and self-confidence than those who are less attached (Vivodic, Stetic, & Bratko, 1999; Wishon, 1987).  No studies, however, have examined whether pet ownership in childhood is correlated with abilities in adulthood to appraise, express, and utilize emotions intelligently. The working hypothesis for this study, therefore, is that dog ownership during childhood correlates with adults’ emotional intelligence.. 

Gender Differences in Second Language Motivation

Motivation has been identified as perhaps the most influential factor in learning a new language. In light of the importance placed on motivation, there is concern amongst second language educators in Canada that our male students are losing interest in studying FSL. The purpose of this study is to identify motivational differences between the two genders in second language learning environments so that educators may be better equipped at dealing with unmotivated male students. Key factors affecting second language motivation will be examined for gender differences. First to be discussed is the concept of motivational orientation. Next, the parameters of motivational theory will be extended to include self-efficacy, anxiety, self-determination, intrinsic/extrinsic orientation, perceptions of the French language, encouragement to study French, goal salience and tolerance of ambiguity.