Traditional Teachings in Aboriginal Literature

by Ruby Farrell

Aboriginal Literature:

     The works of Native writers are categorized under one general "Native Literature" without indication whether it is the topic of the text that is "Native" or because they are authors who happen to be Aboriginal people. 

     Thomas King (1990), in his introduction to All My Relations states:

     ...when we talk about contemporary Native literature, we talk as though we      already have a definition for this body of literature when, in fact, we do not.           And, when we talk about Native writers, we talk as though we have a process for     determining who is a Native writer and who is not, when, in fact, we don't...

     In our discussions of Native literature, we try to imagine that there is a racial     denominator which full-bloods raised in cities, half-bloods raised on farms,     quarter-bloods raised on reservations, Indians adopted and raised by white     families, Indians who speak their tribal language, Indians who speak only English, traditionally educated Indians, university-trained Indians, Indians with little education, and the like all share.  We know, of course, that there is not...(p. x-xi)

In the end, Thomas King produces a definition that:

     "Native literature is literature produced by Natives" (p. x-xi).

There's the question of authenticity of knowledge presented.  Who would  you believe?

The question of 'authenticity of knowledge' is also important to consider.  Brian Swann (1992) in his discussion of who should write what, said:

     The appropriation can lead to many undesirable results, even to the invention, or reinvention, of Native American tradition, a tradition which is fed back to the Native community, and then out again, thus inflicting multiple damage...a good deal of what passes today for Indian culture and religion has been fabricated by the white man, or the Indians who have been trained in the white man's schools (p.xvii)

Agnes Grant (1990) suggests that we "look more closely at Native literature and judge it not within a European cultural paradigm but from the points of view of the culture from which it springs" (p. 126).

Traditional Cultural Teachings:

     Esther Jacko (1992) explains that "Ojibwa stories and legends are used, as they have been from time immemorial, as teaching tools that help to impart our particular history and practices... Ojibwa beliefs, values, customs and traditions are intertwined in such accounts, and are woven into our upbringing to create an understanding of who we are as a distinct people, the Anishinabek (p. 40).

     Cultural teachings, beliefs, values, and ethics, are in contemporary Native literature.  They are present but some are subject only to cultural recognition.  

               Recognition =  Interpretation = Understanding

A Native reader of the same culture as the author recognizes the cultural cues and interprets them correctly and thereby understands the intended meaning beyond the written words.   

The following is an example of this.

Thunderbirds, according to the legends of the First Nations, are feeding when lightning strikes a rock.  Stevens (1971) tells of a man who lived with the thunderbirds and "he found it impossible to eat their food.  Serpents, snakes, frogs and toads..."  When he failed to kill the food they chased out of the rocks with their lightning strikes, they asked, "Why haven't you killed anything?" He replied "I have not seen anything good to eat....only frogs and serpents came out of the hole."  They angrily told him that they are "exactly what we were looking for" (p.90).  The same story is noted by A. Irving Hallowell (1975) saying:  When there is lightning and thunder this is the prey [the snakes] the Thunder Birds are after" (p. 156). 

Now, how do these things appear in books written by Native people?  For the purposes of this colloquium, I will only make reference to two of my novels.  I do however, use other First Nations literature in my dissertation.

                         The snake:     In Silent Words (1992) . Danny is pestered by mice on the floor where he slept so he had released a snake under the bed so that it     would never be hungry again.  The next morning when he was by the beach, he heard a yell from the cabin that sounded like Hog - the owner of the cabin.  He heard a lot of banging on the floor, then a stove lid clanged.

There is no explanation as to what may have happened in the cabin.  But, a Native reader from the same culture will subconsciously understand what just happened without being aware that it had not been stated explicitly in words.

                              Honour the Sun (1987) contains the explanation when Owl states  that the sight of a snake carries a very bad omen and it had to be killed immediately to ward off bad luck.  So, the unstated understanding is that a snake if seen, had to be caught, killed, and burned. 

     Paula Gunn Allen (1987) also makes the statement that "The basic meanings important to these American Indian systems are carried over into the book.  To be unaware of the meaning of these symbols and their accompanying structures is to miss the greater part of the significance of the novel" (p. 570).   

     As this is a rather subconscious element in Ojibwa communication, in Honour the Sun (1987) it is a given and need not be mentioned.  In Silent Words (1992) however, since Danny is just learning about these things in the beginning of the novel, he notices and therefore also comes to the attention of the reader.  But, towards the end of the novel, it is only stated and the interpretation is left for the reader to figure out.

     The non-verbal is not only things that are apparent to the eye, but also the things you communicate by intuition or collective understanding. 

          One example of this intuitive understanding is the scene at his friend Charlotte's house where the mother is cutting his hair.  Her hand suddenly stops and her fingers begin to part his hair all over and then the old man comes over to see and not a word is spoken.  Danny knew they were looking at the scars on his head.  So he shrugs and says "That's why I left home (p. 190).

         Still without a word, the woman begins to clip his hair again and the old man sits back on the bed.

The task then, for the Native author, is to voice the unspoken elements of Aboriginal communication into the English written language.  The Aboriginal words also require a context to anchor their specific cultural meaning.  Without the cultural specific context, the statement loses its intended meaning.

Great care must also be taken in the selection of English words that can be translated back into the Ojibwa language.  In Silent Words (1992), Danny asks the old man,

     "By the way, how long is this trip" in English. 

     The old man pretends not to hear him so Danny says in Ojibwa,

     "When are we going to get to where we're going?" (p.116).

The second question by Danny is the only one that can be translated into the Ojibwa language.  It is important that the words chosen can be simultaneously translated so that the Native language speaker can actually 'hear' the conversation in the Aboriginal language as he or she is reading in order to 'carry over' the intended meaning between the lines.

In Honour the Sun (1987) where all the dialogue is in the Ojibwa language, it is written in English words that can be easily translated back into Ojibwa, as when Owl says,

     Hey, Mom! Know the old man over there that owns that old black dog?

     He's floating dead in the water at the beach!

     Her mom looks at her and says "The old man or the old dog?" (p. 86).

A literal translation of this statement appears exactly the same in Ojibwa.

Saville-Troike (1976) also notes that:

     The meaning of what is said...is largely dependent on what is not said, and what is presupposed or implied...It would be completely impossible to separate language from culture, even if it were desirable to do so, because of the solid imbedding of cultural information in language use and interpretation (p.20, 47).

Armand Garnet Ruffo (1993) notes in reference to Louise Erdrich's Tracks:

     So while critics may state that "encoding invites decoding" such a work     necessarily raises questions: How much goes unnoticed? How much is left unknown? How much can the 'outsider' really know and feel? Again the problem of cross-cultural interpretation comes to the forefront.  The point here is to proceed by examining specific aspects of the novel in light of Anishnawbe culture in order to attain some insight into these "perceptual-interpretive systems" and by doing so     attain a better understanding of how the novel builds upon Native American culture (p. 163-164).

Listening and Observing

          Silent listening and observing allow the whole body to experience the world     around.  Therefore, much of the learning that takes place is non-verbal by nature.  This type of non-verbal communication is acquired quite early in life.    

     Listening requires silence and watching requires attention = self control and     respect for the environment and those around you.

These examples are clearly stated in the novels.  How the elders go about teaching the children and how the communication takes place between the characters.  In "Honour the Sun", after finishing the fishnet that she was making, the mother indicates the amount of fishnet twine that is left over.  The little girl here, has the option to decline the gesture if she did not feel like making a miniature fishnet by saying something like "Oh, that's a lot" and the mother would not have been hurt by the rejection of her idea.  But, the girl is excited and begins to plan how she will carve the spindle and cross-bar that she will need for her fishnet.

In "Silent Words", the old man shows Danny how set the rabbit snare.  Danny follows the old man's hands and he shapes his snare wire exactly how the old man was shaping his.

Then, the old man points out the lay of the land and Danny watches his every move as the old man sets the snare.  When he is done, he stands back and watches Danny pick a spot and set his rabbit snare.  When Danny is done, the conversation goes as follows: The old man says,  "That is a kind of a hard decision to ask a rabbit to make." 

     "What do you mean?" I asked, puzzled. 

          "To stretch or duck under.  I think I would decide to duck under if I was a rabbit,"  he said as he walked away.  Stretch or duck under? Why doesn't he just say that it's too high?  I pushed the snare stick lower and the snare came down about an inch.  That should do it" (p. 136). 

They also put the waves to work washing the muddy clothes from the day before.

          "The waves grabbed the clothes, swished and twirled them between the rocks, then each new wave pounded them against the rocks so hard that the pants stuck to the rock before another wave pulled them back into the water.  We stood around and watched the waves at work.  Ol'Jim had a stick that he used to fish the shirt back with every time it tried to escape" (p.138).

What is the meaning of land? 

          Is land,  a solid piece of the earth

          an expanse of country

          our home and native land

Simon J. Ortiz (1998) offers this explanation:

          Land and people are interdependent.  In fact, they are one and the same essential matter of Existence.  They cannot be separated and delineated into singular entities. If anything is most vital, essential, and absolutely important in Native cultural philosophy, it is this concept of interdependence: the fact that without land there is no life, and without a responsible social and cultural outlook by humans, no life-sustaining land is possible (p.xii).

Land is the holder of our history.  It witnesses the comings and goings of the many generations of Native people who passed through, lived there or died there, and those who are there now.  It is not a separate entity, it is in our hearts, our minds, and some say, also in our souls. 

     In "Silent Words" Ol'Jim is only doing what he naturally does when he, at times, totally baffles the young boy with his on-going commentary as they come across each landmark.  He points out each landmark, telling what went on there once upon a time.

Who did what and the names of the people who were there.

     Pages, 97-99, 101, 119, 157, 171-172.

Even in death, the land remains a part of the person who dies.  Stevens (1971) notes that

"When a person dies, there is a place he goes for his rewards.  He is accepted or if not, he  remains on earth.  His spirit never wanders far from his grave.  It is very lonely and afraid and would like to talk to people but seldom does" (p.8).

In "Silent Words" Ol'Jim tells Danny to stay away from the sand cliff. 

          "Ghosts of ancient people live there...That is an old burial site... Some souls who loved life so much may have refused to leave their bones to go to the other world.

     Now they just wander around the area where their old bones are.  Don't go near  areas like that and don't pick up anything from the ground!" (p172).

Respect is also given to the animals, the birds, fish, and all creatures.

The wolf is a special spirit, because it may not be a 'real' wolf when you see one.  In many instances, it is known to be a guardian spirit.  This is mentioned in many novels and some offer explanations to its appearance.  Tobacco is also often mentioned as an offering to these spirits, to the wind in high water, to a pyramid pile of rocks in the middle of the lake, at every high rock cliff and when ever plants are harvested. 

Teaching and Learning

In the traditional Native teaching method, there are rules, values, and complex social ethics to consider, of which the highest is the ethic of non-interference, where you cannot directly tell someone what to do.  To do so, would be to deny that person the opportunity to figure things out for his/herself, and rob them of their self-esteem or self-worth by implying that they cannot figure things out for themselves.

Basil Johnston (1976) says that:

          To foster individuality and self-grown children and youth are encouraged to draw their own inferences from the stories.  No attempt was made to impose upon them, views. The learner learned according to his capacity, intellectually and physically.

     Some learned quickly and broadly; other more slowly and with narrower scope.   Each according to his gifts (p. 70).

     As an example, in Silent Words, Danny shows that he has understood and learned something when he remembers Mr. Old Indian saying that a baby is born all wrinkled up just as the leaves also come out wrinkled before they spread out in the  sun (p. 59). 

          This is triggered by Ol' Jim's explanation about the big dragon fly whose wings come out of its shell like new leaves, all wrinkled and curled up, then begin to uncurl and spread out in the summer sun (p. 143). 

This method of teaching gives total independence of mind, personal autonomy, and greater assurance that you are quite capable of "feeding" yourself.  This shows the respect that the teacher has for the student by allowing him to discover these things for himself.

Walter C. Lightning (1992) refers to this as to:

     ...state things in such a way that there is a continuing unfolding of the meaning,     as the learner follows the implications of a statement, and then checks it for      "Internal coherence" to see if the learner is "putting it together" properly...

     Its meaning depends on the cognitive act of grasping the meaning, realization,     and then insight. It has this implication for learning and teaching:

     learning is not a product of transferring information between a teacher and a student.  It is a product of creation and re-creation, in a mutual  relationship of personal interaction, of information (p. 232).

Bibliography                      

     Allen, P. G. (1987).  Bringing Home the Fact: Tradition and Continuity in the     Imagination. Recovering the Word: Essays on Native American Literature. Eds.     B. Swann & A. Krupat (Eds.) Berkeley: University of California Press. p. 563-     579.

     Grant, A. (1990). Contemporary Native Women's Voices in Literature.  Native Writers and Canadian Writing. Canadian Literature: Special Issue. Ed. W. H. New.  Vancouver: U.B.C. Press: 124-132.

     Hallowell, A. I. (1975). Ojibwa Ontology, Behaviour, and World View.  Teachings From the American Earth: Indian Religion and Philosophy.  I. & B. Tedlock. New      York: Liveright publishing Corporation. p. 141-178    

     Jacko, E. (1992). Traditional Ojibwa Storytelling. Voices: Being Native in Canada.  L.  Jaine & D. Hayden Taylor. (Eds).  Saskatoon, Sask.: University of Saskatchewan,  Extension Division. p. 40-51.

     Johnston, B. H. (1976). Ojibway Heritage. Toronto, Ont.: McClelland & Stewart     Limited.

     King, T. (Ed.). (1990). All My Relations: An Anthology of Contemporary Canadian Native Fiction. Introduction. Toronto, Ontario: McClelland & Stewart Inc.

     Lightning, W. C. (1992). Compassionate Mind: Implications of a Text Written by Elder Louis Sunchild. Canadian Journal of Native Education. 19(2), 215-253 

    Ortiz, S. J. (1998). Wah Nuhtyuh-yuu Dyu Neetah Tyahstih (Now It Is My Turn to     Stand).  Speaking for the Generations: Native Writers on Writing. Introduction.        Tucson: University of Arizona Press. p. xi-xix.

     Ruffo, A. G. (1993).  Inside Lookout Out: Reading "Tracks" from a Native Perspective.  Looking at the Words of our People: First Nations Analysis of Literature.  J.     Armstrong. (Ed.). Penticton, B.C.: Theytus Books Ltd. p. 161-176.

     Saville-Troike, M. (1976). Foundations for Teaching English as a Second Language:  Theorge and Method for Multicultural Education. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc.  p. 5-66.

     Slipperjack, R. (1987). Honour the Sun. Winnipeg, Man.: Pemmican Publications.

     Slipperjack, R. (1992). Silent Words. Saskatoon, Sask.: Fifth House Publishers.

     Stevens, J. (1971). Sacred Legends of the Sandy Lake Cree. Toronto, Ontario:  McClelland and Stewart.